Oscar 's Key Ideas from Make It Stick
by Peter C. Brown, Henry L. Roediger III, Mark A. McDaniel

Spaced practice distributes learning over time rather than cramming it into single sessions. Research shows:

• Spacing creates partial forgetting that enhances subsequent learning
• The harder the retrieval, the stronger the memory formed
• Optimal spacing increases as time passes (expanding retrieval)
• Interleaving topics strengthens discrimination between similar concepts
• Forgetting is actually an essential component of effective learning

This approach directly contradicts common practice. Most students mass their practice (cramming), which produces rapid short-term gains that create the illusion of learning while failing to produce durable knowledge.

Interleaving involves mixing different topics or types of problems within a single study session. This approach:

• Forces the brain to continually retrieve different solution strategies
• Builds ability to discriminate between problem types
• Prevents reliance on contextual cues from blocked practice
• Feels more difficult but produces stronger learning
• Creates flexibility in applying knowledge to new situations

While blocked practice (focusing on one topic at a time) creates smooth, fast initial learning, interleaving builds the ability to recognize when to apply different approaches—a crucial skill in real-world application that blocked practice fails to develop.

The generation effect shows that self-generated information is remembered better than information merely read or reviewed. This occurs because:

• Active construction of answers strengthens neural connections
• Effort required for generation deepens processing
• Connections formed with existing knowledge become stronger
• Elaboration naturally occurs during generation attempts
• Errors made and corrected during generation enhance learning

This principle explains why answering questions before reading material, completing partial notes rather than reviewing complete ones, and attempting to solve problems before being shown solutions all enhance learning compared to passive review.

Deliberate difficulties are intentional learning challenges that slow down immediate progress but enhance long-term outcomes. These productive obstacles:

• Create cognitive effort that strengthens memory formation
• Prevent superficial pattern recognition that fails with new problems
• Build conceptual understanding rather than procedural knowledge
• Develop problem-solving skills transferable to new contexts
• Require calibration to avoid excessive difficulty that causes abandonment

Effective learning often feels slow and frustrating compared to fluent, error-free practice. This explains why desirable difficulties like varied practice, delayed feedback (in some contexts), and problem-solving before instruction lead to stronger learning despite feeling less productive.

Elaboration involves explaining and connecting material to other knowledge. This technique:

• Enhances recall by creating multiple retrieval pathways
• Builds understanding of underlying principles rather than isolated facts
• Creates meaning by connecting new information to existing knowledge
• Improves transfer to new contexts and applications
• Works through explanations, examples, and analogies

Effective elaboration answers questions like: How does this work? Why does this matter? How does this relate to what I already know? What's an example? These connections transform isolated facts into integrated knowledge networks that remain accessible long-term.

Calibration refers to the accuracy of our judgments about what we know and can do. Research shows:

• Most learners are poorly calibrated, overestimating their abilities
• Unskilled individuals suffer from a double curse—they lack both skill and the ability to recognize their lack of skill
• Objective testing with immediate feedback improves calibration
• Self-testing reveals gaps invisible during review or rereading
• Reflection on errors enhances future calibration

Poor calibration explains why students continue using ineffective study methods despite evidence that they don't work. They mistake familiarity for mastery and attribute failures to external factors rather than flawed approaches.

Metacognition—thinking about your thinking—enables selection of effective learning strategies. Students with strong metacognitive skills:

• Engage in retrieval practice rather than passive rereading
• Space their learning instead of cramming
• Self-test regularly to identify knowledge gaps
• Connect new information to existing knowledge
• Reflect on their learning approaches and adjust based on results

This learning literacy separates successful students from those who work hard but ineffectively. Understanding how memory works allows learners to implement evidence-based practices rather than relying on intuition about what feels productive.

Mental models are frameworks that represent how something works in the real world. Strong learning develops accurate models by:

• Challenging existing misconceptions directly
• Creating predictions that can be tested against reality
• Connecting abstract principles to concrete applications
• Developing frameworks that organize knowledge meaningfully
• Building hierarchies of understanding from foundational to advanced concepts

When learners develop accurate mental models rather than memorizing procedures, they can solve novel problems, transfer knowledge to new domains, and continue building knowledge systematically rather than accumulating disconnected facts.